Bystander Apathy: The Bad Samaritan

In 2007, The U.S. Department of Justice (2009) reported that citizens experienced 23 million crimes. Many of these crimes are witnessed by others. The question is how many of these witnesses do anything about the crimes they see. When nothing is done, it is called bystander apathy. According to Dewey (2007), bystander apathy “occurs when witnesses fail to help somebody in distress.” Research has revealed that bystander apathy is deeply rooted in the human psyche. Although bystander apathy may be a psychological phenomenon, it may also be a result of the misapplication of society respecting the privacy of others.

Bystander apathy has been around for thousands of years. Anyone who has attended Sunday school may remember the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-35 New International Version). In this passage, two individuals, one, a priest, the other, a Levite, passed by a man lying in the street. This man had been robbed, stripped of clothing, beaten, and left for dead. The priest and the Levite did nothing to help the poor man. Sometime later, a Samaritan passed by. He chose to stop and not only help the man but he also “bandaged his wounds,” and then “took him to an inn and took care of him.” (Luke 10:34b).

Causes

Recent history has shown us that it is all too easy to become involved in a legal battle over the simplest of matters. Lack of intervention based on the fear of legal repercussions may very well be a valid argument. For example, a bystander witnesses a woman being assaulted and decides to intervene by hitting the assailant over the head, thus knocking the assailant unconscious. In turn, the assailant sues the bystander for assault or even attempted murder. Aside from possible legal action, there are other causes to consider.

The phrase diffusion of responsibility, coined by psychologists Darley and Latane (1968), has proven to be quite accurate. The phrase simply means that the more people that are present during an emergency or crime, the less willing that one of them will respond. It appears that individually, each person assumes that someone else will take action. Sadly, this is not always the case. Take for instance the case of Catherine “Kitty” Genovese.

Bystander apathy in action
While on her way home late one night in 1964, Genovese was stalked, stabbed 17 times, raped, and left to die. Her cries for help were heard by 38 neighbors, some of which saw her being attacked. At one time, her assailant fled the scene only to return a few moments later to finish what he started. After approximately 30 minutes from the time the attack started, someone finally phoned the police, only it was too late. In the end, Kitty lost her life. She was 28 years old. People all over the globe were flabbergasted by the apathetic condition of her neighbors.

The story of Kitty Genovese quickly became the centerpiece of numerous clinical studies. Gillis and Hagan (1983) “argue that the willingness of people to prevent criminal victimization is affected by two situational components: social distance of the victim from the bystander and the physical distance of the setting from his or her home.” They believe that people react differently in various situations. A study conducted by Gillis and Hagan showed that the closer a crime being committed to a person’s home, the more willing they were to intervene personally. They also came to the conclusion that “people were more likely to assist victims of personal attack than victims of vandalism.” While there is credible data in their research, this was not the case for Genovese.

Among some of the studies conducted, were staged incidents. One of these studies being led by Darley and Latane. In their experiment, the students chosen to participate were separated and put into individual rooms. Each room had an intercom so the student could communicate with the other participants. Some were told that there would be only one other participant. The remaining students were told that there were six other participants. At one point, students thought that they were hearing another student having a seizure. This, of course was part of the experiment. The results reflected that 85% of the students who believed that they were one of two participants choice to help. In contrast, 31% of the students who thought there were four other participants responded. On the surface, this diffusion of responsibility appears to make a person seem cold hearted, indifferent, or even selfish. However, there are other factors to consider.

Becoming a witness to a crime or accident

When we are witness to a traumatic incident, our bodies will sometimes shut down or go into a state of shock. The information taken in with our eyes seems to be unable to connect with our brains, making it difficult to process what is going on around us. Undoubtedly, there are certain events that we witness, that appear to be too surreal to believe; thus, making it hard to react intelligibly. These emotions are not uncommon.

Rasenberger (2006), wrote, “It’s generally not stone-cold indifference that prevents people from pitching in during emergencies, psychologists now agree. It’s states of mind more familiar to most of us: confusion, fear, misapprehension, uncertainty.” Surely, these emotions play a part in the apathetic nature of some bystanders. However, the question remains; does a person intervene or simply turn away? Is it possible to save a life or prevent a crime? When does moral responsibility outweigh confusion and fear? Making a decision to respond to a violent or dangerous situation can be a hard task. On the other hand, not responding can be equally as hard. Whatever decision is made will be with the person for a long time.

Discerning the situation

When deciding if to intervene, the situation needs to be carefully evaluated. For instance, if there is a serious automobile accident, the victim can suffer further damage if handled improperly. The outcome could be deadly. In contrast, deciding to do nothing can be just as deadly. Whether it is chosen to intervene or not, it is undoubtedly a decision that will remain with the bystander for the rest of his or her life. There is a method developed by Beaman (1979), which can be used to help in the decision-making process.

You, the potential helper, must notice an event is occurring.
You must interpret the event as one in which help is needed.
You must assume personal responsibility.
You must then decide what action to take.
You must then take action.

Following these simple steps will help make intelligent decisions. If we take the time to educate ourselves in how to avoid bystander apathy, we will be prepared to lend a hand when needed. It is common to look at those around us to examine their reactions to a violent or dangerous situation. However, if we learn to think rationally, and decide for ourselves what action to take, we will not need to look at others to see if there is validity to the situation. The majority of the time, people are not going to help those in need. It does not make sense to follow suit. We must think for ourselves, and not worry about what someone else is or is not doing. Someone’s life may depend on our decision to help.

It was Mother’s Day weekend when my family and I were at a red light at the busiest intersection in town. Suddenly, in the corner of my eye, I saw a car fly off the overpass that was over us. The car crashed into the embankment and three young bodies were thrown from the vehicle. Without hesitation, I ran over to the scene and saw that there was little hope. I knelt down beside one of the victims, a young boy, and held his hand. That day, I chose to act. Looking back on it now, I am glad that I did. I may have been the last voice those kids heard. Every situation is different but it is how we respond that defines us. Will we be apathetic, or will we stand in the gap for those who need help?

Albert Einstein once said, “The world is a dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don’t do anything about it” (Brainyquote, 2009). The world is indeed a dark place at times but light has the power to overcome that darkness. If we will just be that light, and help those who are in darkness, the danger may not be as serious. Bystander apathy may be rooted in the mindset of man, but we should not use that as an excuse to simply stand by and do nothing. What would we want others to do if our lives were in danger?

References

Beaman, A., Barnes, P., Klentz, B., & Mcquirk, B. http://blog.monkeymagic.net/archives/2004/05/28/curing_bystander_apathy_5_easy_steps.html
Monkeymagic.com

Albert Einstein
http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/a/albert_einstein_8.html
Brainyquote

Dewey, R. A.
http://www.intropsych.com/ch15_social/bystandy_apathy.html
Psyche Web

Darley, J. M. & Latane, B.
http://www.wadsworth.com/psychology _d/templates/ student_resources/0155060678_rathus/ps/ps19.html
Primary Sources

Gillis, A., & Hagan, J.
http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/Abstract.aspx?id=97187
National Criminal Justice Reference Service

Rasenburger, J.
http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/2006/5/2006_5_65.shtml
AmericanHeritage.com

U.S. Department of Justice
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/cvictgen.htm
Bureau of Justice Statistics

The Sexual Response Cycle

The sexual response cycle is the term used to describe the changes that occur in the body as it becomes aroused (Axia College, 2009, Week Five Supplement). The sexual response cycle consists of four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasmic, and resolution. Although the bodily changes in men and women differ during each of these phases, there are some commonalities. In order to understand these differences and commonalities, we must first learn about the two components that make up the sexual response cycle. These are vasocongestion, and myotonia.Vasocongestion is the swelling of the genitals and breasts as well as the earlobes. This occurs in both men and women. Myotonia is the tensing of the muscles, which cause spasms in the face, hands, feet, and finally, the spasms in orgasm. Without these two components, sexual intercourse would be impossible. Let us take a closer look at each phase, and see exactly what happens in the body.

1. The Excitement Phase: This is the initial phase, which serves as a primer for the following phases. In both men and women, the genitals become ready for sexual intercourse. As the man becomes aroused, an erection and thickening of the scrotal skin is present. His testes also become enlarged. In women, the clitoris swells and becomes flat causing the vaginal lips to spread, and the vagina becomes lubricated. The vagina expands and the breasts become enlarged. In both sexes, the nipples can become erect, heart rate increases, and blood pressure rises. The skin may blush from the excitement.

2. The Plateau Phase: At this point, the sexual experience stabilizes for a time. Vasocongestion continues to increase, and muscle tension, heart rate, and blood pressure increase in preparation for orgasm. The clitoris withdraws into its hood. The inner two-thirds of the vagina expand fully, while the outer third thickens. The penis may emit seminal fluid, and testes become fully lifted and double in size.

3. The Orgasmic Phase: Men go through two stages in this phase. First, semen collects at the base of the penis. Second, muscle contractions cause ejaculation, or the emission of semen. For the woman, an orgasm consists of 13 to 15 contractions in the pelvic muscles, followed by weaker contractions. All the foreplay and stimulation have led to this wonderful stage. Orgasm often relieves stress and makes one feel relaxed.

4. The Resolution Phase: In this phase, the body returns to the unaroused state. The genitals return to their normal size in both sexes. The major difference in this phase is that men go through a refractory period in which they cannot reach orgasm again or ejaculate. This period can last anywhere between a couple of minutes to 24 hours. Women, on the other hand, can reach multiple orgasms.

The sexual response cycle is something that happens naturally. That is, that our bodies automatically respond to certain stimuli. However, there are times when our bodies do not respond the way they should. When our bodies persistently fail to become aroused or are unable to reach orgasm, it is called sexual dysfunction (Axia College, 2009, Week Five Supplement). Men and women can experience different types of sexual dysfunction and the cause can vary for each individual.

1. Hyperactive Sexual Desire Disorder: The person suffering with this disorder will show little interest in sexual encounters and will not necessarily think that there is anything wrong. They believe that their low sex drive is normal. What they may not know is that this disorder is commonly caused by a biological problem.

2. Female Sexual Arousal Disorder: This is simply the absence of vaginal lubrication, and is typically experienced by most women at one time or another.

3. Male Erectile Disorder: This occurs when a man fails to attain or maintain an erection. Again, most men will experience this at some point. When the male or female continues to have a problem in this area, it is diagnosed as a disorder. It perfectly natural to experience arousal or erectile deficiency every once in a while.

4. Orgasmic Disorder: This occurs when a person has a consistent problem reaching orgasm, even though they are sexually aroused. Although this happens more frequently in women, men may experience this disorder as well.

5. Premature Ejaculation: The male ejaculates prematurely with very little stimulation. This is frustrating for both men and women, because the male ejaculates so quickly he is unable to enjoy the sexual experience, and the female is often left unsatisfied.

6. Performance Anxiety: This is very similar to stage fright. Instead of one being fearful of their performance on stage, one is fearful of performance in the bedroom. Performance anxiety is often the result of the disorders listed above.

There is hope for those that suffer from sexual dysfunctions. Talking to a doctor or a sex therapist can be very helpful. Oftentimes, sexual disorders are caused by an underlying health problem and should be explored. For instance, the use of alcohol, narcotics, and tranquilizers can stun sexual arousal (Axia College, 2009, Week Five Supplement). Other factors include, fatigue, depression, heart disease, diabetes mellitus, multiple sclerosis, spinal-cord injuries, complications from surgical procedures, and use of therapeutic drugs.

Many times, the cause is psychological. Most common in women, psychological problems can greatly hinder a healthy sex life. Unfortunately, many women have experienced some type of sexual, physical, or emotional abuse, making it difficult to enjoy a sexual relationship with their partner. In this case, psychological counseling would be helpful.

Sex therapists can help individuals or couples overcome their anxieties about sex, become more confident, teaching sexual skill, enhancing sexual knowledge, and improving sexual communication (Axia College, 2009, Week Five Supplement). Sex is a natural part of a loving relationship, and it is to be enjoyed by both sexes. Failure to experience fulfillment of sexual desires can be extremely frustrating and put strain on a relationship. If a person is experiencing any type of dysfunction, they should consult their physician to rule out any health problems. If there are no health problems, counseling should be considered.

References

Axia College
Chapter Thirteen in Psychology and the Challenges of Life

Psychology and Health Problems: The Multi-Factorial Model

The Multi-Factorial Model is a common tool used in psychology that suggests that health related issues are cause by not just one factor, but many. These factors include biological, environmental, psychological, and cultural. It is believed that the relationship between these factors and our genes combined with our lifestyle, are play a major role in our well-being.

This is good news, considering that many of us tend to believe that if cancer or heart disease runs in our families then we are doomed to the same fate; however, this is not so. While some of us are born with certain predispositions making us vulnerable to disease, it is not a certainty (Axia College, 2009, Week Three Supplement). There are steps we can take that greatly reduce our chances of contracting a life threatening illness.

Two areas that we can control are, reducing stress, and cancer. By simply learning how to reduce stress and eating a healthy diet, we can live a long and happy life. Many of us would probably be surprised to know that stress, anxiety, and depression, weaken our immune systems, which leaves us open to sickness. Stress and anxiety has even been linked to cancer. In the following paragraphs, we will explore how psychology has played a role in reducing the damaging effects of everyday stressors.

When we are under a much stress, our bodies go into overdrive, and eventually if we do not extinguish the source of stress, we will become so exhausted that it may be hard to recuperate. Sometimes it may be hard to pinpoint the source of stress, as there are many contributing factors. Fortunately, extensive psychological studies have made it possible to not only recognize those factors, but how to cope with them as well. Let us consider a few sources, and how to overcome them.

Psychological hardiness is a term used to describe a person that has certain characteristics, such as commitment, challenge, and control (Axia College, 2009, Week Three Supplement), that act as a barrier against stress. Having these traits enables the person to look at a seemingly stressful situation as an opportunity to conquer an obstacle. This trait causes the individual to see that glass as half-full, not half-empty. Not all of us exhibit this trait; however, we can learn to be optimistic simply by changing our mindset.

How do we change our mindset? In order to better manage our daily stress, it is important to keep a few things in mind. According to Axia College Week Three Supplement (2009), there are ways that we can reduce stress, just by making right choices. By choosing to manage our time wisely, we can get more done and still have some personal time. We can also delegate daily chores to help lessen our burden. Some other effective ways to reduce stress are to talk to someone or keep a journal.

Most importantly, we can take care of our bodies by exercising regularly. Research has shown that a good work out reduces stress by strengthening our heart and releasing more endorphins into our bloodstream. The psychological effects of exercise are equally as important. When we take time for ourselves to exercise, it gives us a sense of accomplishment. It also may encourage us to eat healthier; after putting in all that effort of burning calories, we would not want to undo our hard work.

Diet and exercise are not only effective ways to reduce stress but they also aid in guarding our bodies against cancer. Cancer is nothing more than abnormal cells that invade the body. They are alien, and do not belong there. Normally, our bodies wage war against these intruders, but when we are under prolonged stress, or do not practice a healthy physical lifestyle, we open the door to this unwelcome guest. So, what do professionals suggest that we do in order to repel these ugly cells? First, we can avoid smoking cigarettes. Smoking is the number one cause of lung cancer; it is also directly related to various other forms of cancer (Axia College, 2009, Week Three Supplement).

By maintaining a healthy diet, we can keep our weight at a healthy level. By avoiding such foods as animal fats, and foods that are highly processed and incorporating foods that are rich in vitamins and minerals, we can be sure to keep our bodies healthy. It is important to remember that just because a family member had cancer does not mean that we will develop cancer. I lost my father this year to cancer; I am grateful, that scientists have learned that we can play an active role in preventing cancer from taking residence in our body. Now I know what I need to do to stay cancer-free.

Now it is time to discuss stress again. While it is still unclear of the role stress plays in connection to cancer, one thing is for certain; our DNA undergoes damage when we experience stress. When DNA is damaged, it has to work harder to repair itself (Axia College, 2009, Week Three Supplement). When this happens, cancer can develop without much of a fight. It is imperative that we learn to control our stress levels in order to keep our cells functioning properly.

Psychology has offered real solutions to handling stress and preventing disease. But, what if one already has cancer? Psychology has also helped cancer patients cope with the trauma of their disease. By encouraging cancer patients to be take part in support groups, psychologists have introduced a way for the patients to relate to one another. Psychologists have also taught cancer patients relaxation techniques to help control the effects that chemotherapy has on the body.

In closing, psychology has been an innovative force to understanding and dealing with everyday issues. Without the science of mental processes, we would not understand many of the events that take place on a daily basis. Because of dedicated individuals who give themselves to the study of the human condition, we are able to combat many of life’s challenges. The human mind and body is an intricate and baffling entity, one that sparks wonder and amazement. Thanks to the world of science, we can peer into this chasm of existence and learn of its’ mysteries. By doing so, we can understand how to help ourselves, and more importantly, help others.

References

Axia College
Chapter Four in Psychology and the Challenges of Life

Illiteracy

What causes more lifelong damage to American children than abuse, injuries, disabilities, and illness? What costs more than war, crime, and drug abuse? The answer is illiteracy (Children of the Code, 2009). The inability to read and write intelligibly can be directly connected to some of our nation’s biggest problems. The cause of illiteracy has many factors such as teaching style, the child’s readiness to learn, parental involvement, and overexposure to media. While blame of illiteracy shifts from one source to another, the fact remains that, many children pass school without the proper reading skills.

The Survey Says
According to the National Adult Literacy Survey (1993), 42 million American adults cannot read. The data in the survey is based on three different areas of reading proficiency. The NALS describes these areas as:
Prose literacy ‘” the knowledge and skills needed to understand and use information from texts that include editorials, news stories, poems, and fiction; for example, finding a piece of information in a newspaper article, interpreting instructions from a warranty, inferring a theme from a poem, or contrasting views expressed in an editorial.

Document literacy ‘” the knowledge and skills required to locate and use information contained in materials that include job applications, payroll forms, transportation schedules, maps, tables, and graphs; for example, locating a particular intersection on a street map, using a schedule to choose the appropriate bus, or entering information on an application form.
Quantitative literacy ‘” the knowledge and skills required to apply arithmetic operations, either alone or sequentially, using numbers embedded in printed materials; for example, balancing a checkbook, figuring out a tip, completing an order form, or determining the amount of interest from a loan advertisement.

The Bottom Line
Consequently, the results of the survey are revealing. It is estimated that 40 to 44 million Americans cannot read beyond the lowest level of reading. Most of the individuals that fall into this range have not completed high school. High volumes of the individuals are of African-American, Hispanic, Asian, or Pacific Islander descent. Another 26% suffer from some mental, physical, or health problem that hindered their learning experience (NALS, 1993).

What Causes Illiteracy?
The United States, by far, is one of the most influential countries in the world. We have an abundance of almost anything that a person could want. Every citizen is entitled to a free education, and school attendance is encouraged. So why are so many Americans unable to read? The answer may lie in our teaching methods. Since the 1930’s, schools have used the basal reading method, or “look and say” method. This method teaches the child to memorize the whole word instead of learning how the word sounds. This is often taught with the aid of pictures. Students are encouraged to look at a picture, and then learn the whole word. Many scholars agree that the basal method is emphatically wrong.

For example, Rudolf Flesch (1985), author of Why Johnny Can’t Read, stated that, “Johnny couldn’t read until half a year ago for the simple reason that nobody ever showed him how” (p. 2). Flesch, among others, believe the best way to teach a child to read is by using phonics. Also known as code emphasis, phonics helps the reader to see the relationship between the patterns in letters, and the way they sound. Until the 20th century, learning the alphabet was the first step in learning to read. Children were taught the sounds of each letter, then syllables, and finally, how the syllables come together to form words.

While the “look and say” method teaches children how to read quickly, it fails to prepare the reader to learn words independently. Because children are taught the whole word, they fail to learn how to sound out words on their own. According to Aaron and Joshi (1992),
We can summarize the results of 60 years of research dealing with beginning reading instruction by stating that early systematic instruction in phonics provides the child with the skills necessary to become an independent reader at an earlier age than is likely if phonics instruction is delayed or less systematic” (p. 41).

Of course, reading methods are not the only cause of illiteracy. According to a study conducted during the 2002-2003 school year, it was learned that “thirty-six percent of adolescents played video games — gamers played for an hour on the weekdays and an hour and a half on the weekends. Compared with nongamers, adolescent gamers spent 30% less time reading and 34% less time doing homework” (Cummings & Vandewater, 2007). In addition to video games, children watch approximately 130 minutes of television per day (Healy, 2009). This would explain the steady decline in SAT scores over the past few decades that have been linked to an increase of television viewing.

The Devil’s Advocate
Nevertheless, not all media is bad. In fact, new technology is increasing the ability to learn by offering an array of digital literacy programs. For instance, online texts and electronic books offer an interactive experience, via hypermedia, that allows the reader to explore the material. “As students read the text, they are able to click on the links to access definitions of words, additional information on concepts, illustrations, animations, and video'”all of which can increase their understanding of the material” (Young, 2001).

Many of the online reading programs teach using phonetics. Unlike the traditional classroom, online programs offer games, video, and tutorials that make the learning experience more fruitful (Literacy Information, 2008). Furthermore, Cooper (1996) states, “the electronic wizardry that envelops children’s lives can be part of the textual communities that form during the oral phase of literacy development.”

For Your Information

If our teaching methods do not change, we will continue to see an increase in adult literacy. Many people may fail to understand the connection between illiteracy and many of the problems our nation faces today. However, taking a look at the overwhelming statistics should silence any suspicions that illiteracy is not important. The following data is almost unbelievable. The sad truth is that America has a problem, and unless something is done to justify the problem, it will only get worse. According to Begin to Read (2009):

85% of juvenile delinquents are functionally illiterate
More than 60% of prison inmates are functionally illiterate
90% of welfare recipients dropped out of school
$106-238 billion is spent annually on health care illiteracy

Health care? Yes. Individuals who cannot read often do not have health insurance or a primary care physician. When illness occurs, the emergency room is the only place to go, and tax dollars pay for the care provided. When treatment and medication are given, the patient lacks the common reading skills to read care instructions or the prescription label. Tanner (2007) stated, “A study of patients 65 and older found that those who could not understand basic written medical instructions were much more likely to die within six years than those who had no problems grasping the information.”

Consequently, the data shows that illiteracy stretches far beyond the pages of a book. Health illiteracy is a serious problem with dangerous repercussions. There are many people who may not even be aware that there is such a thing as health illiteracy. Bendycki (2008) explains, “Health literacy is defined as our ability to obtain, interpret, and understand basic health information and services, as well as our competence and motivation to use such information and services in ways that enhance our health…” Sadly, many people are affected by this disability, and it sometimes costs their lives.

The Product of Illiteracy
Illiteracy affects our society on many levels. The inability to read makes it very difficult to compete in the job market. Failure to obtain a good paying job is the beginning of a downward spiral. Nearly half of working adults earn well below the poverty level. When adults do not make enough money to support themselves and/or their families, they often are left with few choices: a life of poverty, a life of crime, a life dependant on the government, and/or a life void of social stature. This can drive people to desperate measures.

For instance, a person may become involved in illegal activity. Most people that are serving a prison sentence cannot read. Undoubtedly, the illiterate person does not have the education or communication skills needed to survive in our society. When a person learns to read and write, he or she is also learning to communicate. Language barriers hinder a person’s ability to communicate their emotions effectively, leaving the individual frustrated, and acting out in anger. Hence, a violent act occurs. “It is almost without exception, that illiterates feel ashamed, stupid, and unwanted. They tend to disengage from society, are truant from school, join gangs, and become involved in drugs, and crime” (McCoy, 2003).

It is important to understand that the outcome of illiteracy is grim. The scenario mentioned above is in complete correlation with poor reading skills; skills that should be taught and learned during the first years of a child’s education. Research shows that “Children who have difficulty learning to read, for example, may become frustrated or unhappy in school and express their frustration and unhappiness by acting aggressively toward the teacher or classmates” (Miles and Stipek, 2006). Clearly, the propensity to indulge in criminal activity begins in the formative years of a person’s life.

The Solution
So what is the solution to this epidemic? It may simpler than we think. If schools would just return to teaching methods that worked for centuries, then maybe our children would know how to read. Having the proper teaching resources and skills, our educators can raise up a generation of strong, avid readers. Children must learn the alphabetic code in order to become successful readers. In the book, The Bridge to Literacy, Dr. McGuinness is quoted saying,

When the sequence of reading and spelling is compatible with the logic of the alphabet code and with the child’s linguistic and logical development, learning how to read and spell proceeds rapidly and smoothly for all children and is equally effective for poor readers of all ages. (Corcoran, 2009, p. 191)

Additionally, Corcoran (2009) states, “Students do not learn to read for many reasons, but an elaborate structure of excuses must not become a wall imprisoning children in the subculture of illiteracy” (¶ 1).
We must not ignore illiteracy. Whether we blame the teacher, the parent, or the child is no longer the main issue. Educators and parents must work together to remedy this problem before any more of our children become crippled by illiteracy. The fact that our children are graduating high school without proper reading and writing skills is unacceptable. Our children deserve to experience the fundamental element of reading; without that right, they do not have a hope for a future. It is time to be proactive and demand that the curricula be improved.

References
Begin to Read
http://www.begintoread.com/research/literacystatistics.html
Begin to Read

Bennett, W. J.
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/arch/usadecline.html
The Wall Journal

Children of the Code
http://www.childrenofthecode.org/Tour/index.htm
Children of the Code

Corcoran, J.
http://books.google.com/books?id=gHFPXtVsLHYC&pg=PP1&dq=The+bridge+to+literacy+no+child–or+adult–left+behind&ei=n57oSp31K47WNciE7e4L#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Google Books

Cooper, D D
http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-206603_ITM
Access My Library

Cummings, H. M., & Vandewater, E. A.

Relation of time spent on video games and other activities (Cummings & Vandewater, 2007)

VG Researcher

Flesch, R.
http://www.archive.org/details/whyjohnnycantreadctestscribe4
Internet Archive

Healy, J.
http://www.enotalone.com /article/5609.html
eNotAlone.com

Literacy Information
http://www.caliteracy.org/online/
Caliteracy

McCoy, J.
http://newsnet.byu.edu/story.cfm/46302
Universe.byu.edu

Miles, S., & Stipek, D.
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ732832&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ732832
Erik

National Center for Education Statistics

Click to access 93275.pdf

National Adult Literacy Survey

P. G. Aaron, & R. Malatesha Joshi
http://books.google.com/books?id=jThh9F7SXuIC&pg=PA251&lpg=PA251&dq=P.+G.+Aaron,+%26+R.+Malatesha+Joshi+Reading+problems.&source=bl&ots=vC_u3MsCA3&sig=1ieObf_SxrgzLvpKoD9bpc36dYE&hl=en&ei=_KDoSt7KHceTlAeY0uGLCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CA0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false
Google Books

Tanner, L.
http://www.newsobserver.com/news/health_science/story/647237.html
The News Observer

Young, E. E.
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/reading/li300.htm
North Central Regional Educational Laboratory

The Death Penalty

I have always been a supporter of the death penalty; however, I have had to reevaluate my beliefs about capital punishment. For the past few days I have mulled over this topic in my head and have talked about it with several people. I quickly came to realize that I don’t fully understand where I stand on this issue. I began to question the authority that we have as individuals, as to whether we have the right to say who lives and who dies. Because of my faith, I wondered do we really have the right to administer death to another human being. What about redemption? No one is beyond that. Right? I clearly had some research to do.

After much searching and consideration, I have come to conclusion that I do indeed support the death penalty. “Thou shalt not kill” (Ex. 20:13), has been used as an indicator that we should not utilize capital punishment. However, the Hebrew word that was used, ratsach, is translated as murder. There is clearly a difference between murder and killing. In the Encarta Dictionary, killing is described as the act of causing the death of a person or animal. In contrast, the word murder means the crime of killing another person deliberately and not in self-defense or with any other extenuating circumstance recognized by law.

While death of any kind is unfortunate, I believe that certain crimes constitute the death penalty. We as a society have an obligation to make our environment safe for one another and future generations. It is our God given right to exercise authority and elect government officials that will adhere to the laws and see that the laws are upheld. It is also our responsibility to ensure that justice is served and every person accused of a crime gets a fair trial.

According to Enyart (n.d.), “In countries like Saudi Arabia, which enforce a swift and certain death penalty, violent crime is rare.” The death penalty can be a serious deterrent, if used properly. A zero tolerance for violent crimes would be a good remedy to our high crime statistics. The laws that are set forth must be respected and obeyed in order to maintain the quality of life we all want and expect.

Some may argue that capital punishment in inhumane and hateful. I believe that if a person commits a horrific crime, then the criminal must take responsibility for that crime. If that means that the criminal is sentenced to death, then so be it. The only responsibility that we have left if to make sure that the criminal gets a swift and medically supervised execution. After all, we are a civilized people and are not in the same category as the criminal.

In the case of Angel Diaz, it took over 30 minutes for him to die. That should not have happened. While I support the death penalty, I also support human rights; therefore, the criminal must be treated with some degree of dignity even if they are a condemned soul. We must do everything in our power to make sure that an event like this does not happen again. The officials responsible for administering the punishment should be adequately trained and prepared for any possible malfunction.
In closing, I would like to say that my heart goes out to all those involved with these terrible crimes, whether they are family of the victim(s) or family of the accused. My heart also goes out to the criminal who obviously had issues that were not or could not be addressed.

References
Enyart, B.
http://www.theologyonline.com/DEATH.HTML
Theology Online

Suicide in the Workplace

It is a common misconception to think that physicians have the highest suicide rates, but there is data that paints another picture. In 2004, a detailed analysis of a study conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics was published. “From 1992 to 2001, a total of 2,170 workers died from suicides that occurred while the decedent was at work. These fatal self-inflicted injuries accounted for 3.5 percent of the 61,824 overall workplace fatalities over the period,” (Pegula, 2004). According to this report, it is not physicians, but managers and administrators that have the highest suicide rates.

The following list shows the total percentage of suicides per occupation:
Managers and administrators, not elsewhere classified…….10.0
Supervisors and proprietors, sales occupations……………7.3
Mechanics and repairers, except supervisors………………4.6
Vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics, repairers…………6.7
Automobile mechanics and apprentices…………………….9.5
Motor vehicle operators………………………………..1.2
Truck drivers…………………………………………1.1
Military occupations…………………………………..8.1
Police and detectives, including supervisors……………..5.9
Police and detectives, public service……………………5.6
Cleaning and building service occupations, except household..9.1
Construction trades, except supervisors………………….1.4
Guards, including supervisors…………………………..6.1
Guards and police, except public service…………………6.6
Managers, food serving and lodging establishments…………7.5
Farmers, except horticultural…………………………..1.9
Laborers, except construction…………………………..2.4
(SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries.)

Just from looking at the list, it is easy to conclude that those who hold a position of power and authority have a higher rate of work related suicide than other occupations. But why? The most obvious reason is stress. When a person is under a tremendous amount of stress, there is an elevated risk of suicidal thoughts. If left unchecked, these thoughts can become a reality.
There are several main types of stress.

Eustress is the “good stress.” We typically experience this when we watch scary movies, on a roller coaster, winning a game, completing a major task. Distress can be acute and/or chronic, and are experienced when we lose a loved one, have financial problems, are overloaded at work, lose a job, have relationship problems, and so forth. Hyperstress happens when a person has reached their limit. They have been stretched so thin, that even the littlest of annoyances can cause a meltdown. And finally, there is hypostress, which is the opposite of hyperstress. When a person becomes complacent with their job and/or life, they can experience hypostress. Instead of feeling overwhelmed by the amount of work they have, they feel bored (Deal With Stress, 2007).

It is important to seek help if you become too overwhelmed with the circumstances in your life. Many people may feel that by seeking help, they will appear weak or lose the respect of co-workers or family members. We live in stress-filled world where everyone expects things to moving at mach speed. It is not a sign of weakness to get help, it is a step towards a stronger character. Those who seek help will soon discover that there are tools to help cope with stress. Suicide is permanent, but the things that lead to it are not.

Deal With Stress (2007). Types of stress. Retrieved April 20, 2010, from http://www.dealwithstress.com/Types-Of-Stress.html

Pegula, S. M. (2004). An analysis of workplace suicides, 1992-2001. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved April 20, 2010, from http://www.bls.gov/opub/cwc/sh20040126ar01p1.htm

Control Theory and Deviant Behavior

In sociology, the control theory attempts to explain an individual’s social bonds in relation to their behavior. When deviant behavior is studied, typically scientists and investigator’s look for what causes that behavior. In control theory, the opposite is true. The investigator wants to find out what causes conformity instead of what causes deviance. It is believed that an individual with weak social bonds, is more likely to commit some type of devious act. According to Travis Hirschi, “the delinquent is relatively free of the intimate attachments, the aspirations, and the moral beliefs that bind” (1969, preface).

As one of the strongest advocates for control theory, Hirschi, claims that every individual has the potential to commit devious acts (Tischler, 2010). But what makes us decide to commit these acts or restrain ourselves? Hirschi and Gottfredson (1993) have honed in on a particular type of control—self-control, that may answer this question. The answer also lies in the individual’s history. “One important variant considers the effectiveness of child rearing or the adequacy of socialization as the key to delinquency” (Hirschi, 1977, p. 330).

Overview of Control Theory
“Hirschi suggests that the more attached persons are to other members of society, the more they believe in the values of conventional society, and the more they invest in and are involved in conventional lines of activity, the less likely they are to deviate” (Chriss, 2007 ,p. 692). In his book Causes of Delinquency, Hirschi (1969) lists four ways in which an individual forms a bond with society, thus leading to accepted behavioral practices. These are:
1. Attachment to others. Forming bonds to others helps solidify one’s attitude toward society as a whole. As an individual becomes attached to a parent and his/her peer’s, they will want to display a behavior that is accepted by society.
2. Commitment to conformity.
Investment in conventional society by getting an education or pursuing a career, further shows an individual’s desire to be a part of society.
3. Involvement in conventional activities. By engaging in conventional activities, the individual is too busy to engage in delinquency. Idol hands often lead to trouble.
4. Belief in the moral validity of social rules. Having a strong belief system is key to obedience. An individual that has a strong sense of morals will obey the law and steer clear of delinquency.

When these four elements are developed in an individual, they will be more prone to
following societal norms; however, if these elements are not properly formed, the individual will have little regard for the conventional rules set by society (Tischler, 2010).

Another important factor is self-control. Hirschi and Gottfredson (1993) introduced the self-control theory as means to further understand an individual’s propensity to commit crime. In this theory, it is assumed that “all behavior is motivated by self-interest and the pursuit of pleasure, the theory postulates that those with low self-control are insufficiently restrained from acts that are immediately gratifying, simple, exciting, and easy” (Latimore, Tittle, & Grasmick, 2006, p. 344).

Where does self-control come from? Hirschi and Gottfredson argue that “self-control develops early in life, through socialization pressures applied both by caregivers and by institutions involved in socialization processes, like the school” (Latimore, Tittle, & Grasmick, 2006, p. 346). If a child fails to arrive at this development, then there is an increased risk of the child engaging in delinquent acts. Low self-control makes it difficult for the individual to resist the temptation, and when conventional means to get what he/she wants fails, then the individual will move on to illegal ways of attainment (Ezinga, Weerman, Westenberg, & Bijleveld, 2008).

Conclusion
The impact of the control theory in relation to deviant behavior is tremendous. Thanks to the research of people like Travis Hirschi and his colleagues, we are able to peer into some of the causes of delinquency and crime. Understanding deviance and criminal behavior begins with understanding its relationship to self-control. Thus, “…self-control is salient in child and adolescent development and adjustment, and thus begs some resolution and new insights to the high degree of observed covariation with deviance during childhood”( Vazsonyi & Huang, 2010, p.255).

References

Chriss, J. (2007). The functions of the social bond. Sociological Quarterly, 48(4), 689-712. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2007.00097.x.

Ezinga, M., Weerman, F., Westenberg, P., & Bijleveld, C. (2008). Early adolescence and delinquency: Levels of psychosocial development and self-control as an explanation of misbehaviour and delinquency. Psychology, Crime & Law, 14(4), 339-356. doi:10.1080/10683160701770070.

Latimore, T., Tittle, C., & Grasmick, H. (2006). Childrearing, self-control, and crime: Additional evidence. Sociological Inquiry, 76(3), 343-371. Retrieved from America: History & Life database.

Hirschi, T. (1977). Causes and Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency. Sociological Inquiry, 47(3/4), 322-341. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.

Hirschi, T. (2002). Causes of Delinquency. Retrieved April 24, 2010, from
http://books.google.co/books?id=i13b00vhluoC&pg=PA198lpg=PA198&dq=travis+hirschi+four+beliefssource=blots=ar1OzxM5T6sig=vMCATBYwS_6AmWPJP1SrmQ08HFIhl=en&ei=CYvTS7zcOJLK8ATK0bi3BAsa=X&oi=book_result&ct=resultresnum=8ved=0CCwQ6AEwBw#v=snippetq=commitment&f=false

Tischler, H. (2010). Introduction toSociology(10th edition). Belmont, CA:Wadsworth, Inc

Vazsonyi, A., & Huang, L. (2010). Where Self-Control Comes From: On the Development of Self-Control and Its Relationship to Deviance Over Time. Developmental Psychology, 46(1), 245-257.doi:10.1037/a0016538.

Suicide: A Family Tradition?

In 2006, The American Foundation for Suicide Prevention stated there were 33,300 reported suicide deaths for the year. Suicide if the fourth leading cause of death among adults ages 18 to 65 with a total of 27,321 suicides. Among these adults, some are parents. What are the consequences of a parent taking their own life? How does this act effect the individual’s children? The reality of the consequences can be found in a study conducted by the Johns Hopkins Children’s Center.

According to the study, children who lose a parent to suicide are three times more likely to commit suicide themselves. “Losing a parent to suicide at an early age emerges as a catalyst for suicide and psychiatric disorders,” says lead investigator Holly C. Wilcox, psychiatric epidemiologist at Hopkins Children’s Centre.

The study also indicates that the age of the child when the parent commits suicide is important. It appears that children and teens are more at risk of developing depression and suicidal tendencies than young adults. This leads the researchers to believe that environmental and developmental factors play a part as well.

For a child that loses a parent to suicide, it is essential that special attention be put on the child. If the child starts exhibiting signs of depression or erratic behavior, then intervention is necessary. Wilcox goes on to say, “Children are surprisingly resilient. A loving, supporting environment and careful attention to any emerging psychiatric symptoms can offset even such major stressor as a parent’s suicide.”

So what are the warning signs of suicidal tendencies? The American Association of Suicidology has posted a mnemonic on their web site to help remember the signs : Is Path Warm? I- Ideation, S- Substance Abuse, P – Purposelessness, A – Anxiety, T – Trapped, H – Hopelessness, W – Withdrawal, A – Anger, R – Recklessness, M – Mood Changes. If you or someone you know exhibits these signs, please call the National Suicide Prevention Lifeline at 1-800-273-TALK, to speak with a professional counselor. They are there to help seven days a week, 24 hours a day. There is hope and healing.

References

Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions (2010, April 23). Children who lose a parent to suicide more likely to die the same way, study finds. Retrieved April 26, 2010, from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100421160013.htm

American Association of Suicidology (n.d.). Know the warning signs. Retrieved April 26, 2010, from http://www.suicidology.org/web/guest/stats-and-tools/warning-signs

May Peace Be Within Your Walls: The Root of Middle Eastern Tensions

When we hear of peace talks in the Middle East, it usually pertains to Palestinians and Israelis. But it goes far beyond these two groups. On the whole, the enemy of Israel is the Arabs. Iran, Syria, Pakistan, Hezbollah and even Russia, are among the enemies of Israel. Why Russia? Simple. Since the 1970’s Russia has armed the enemies of Israel. But why is there so much animosity against this tiny nation called Israel, a state that is not even the size of New Jersey?A Brief History of Relations
Land has always been an issue when it comes to the Middle East. According to the Bible, God commanded Moses to lead His people out from Egypt into the land promised to them. They would 40 years in the wilderness; many of them did not live to see the Promised Land. Indeed, Moses himself was denied access due to the grumbling of the Israelites. It would be Joshua who would go into the Promised Land and conquer Canaan. When David became king, he conquered Jerusalem (abt. 1000 B.C.). After David’s death, his son, Solomon, divided the kingdom in two: the north, Israel and the south, Judea (Adler & Pouwels, 2008, pg. 48).

Around 721 B.C., the Assyrians captured Israel and the Babylonians captured Judea around 586 B.C. The Temple that Solomon built was destroyed and many Jews were displaced. When Cyrus conquered the Babylonians, some Jews were allowed to return; although many remained in Babylonia. Alexander the Great conquered the Persian’s in 331 B.C., but ruled only a short time before his death, when his generals divided the empire. Under King Antiochus IV, the freedom to practice Judaism was threatened. When the Jews revolted, they ultimately found protection under Rome.

Under the Roman “protection,” the land was divided into districts: Judea, Galilee, Peraea, and a small trans-Jordanian section. After subduing many Jewish revolts, the Romans drove out the Jews from Jerusalem and called the area Palestine. In the seventh century, Muslim Arabs conquered Palestine and Jerusalem. They would control this are along with much of the Middle East until the early 1900’s. In 1948, Israel was declared a state. In 1967, the six-day war started, when Israel attacked Egyptian forces when they refused to stand down. The result of this war was Israel gaining several territories including Golan Heights, the Sinai desert, and the West Bank (Isseroff, 2009).

To this day, many Arab nations are hell bent on seeing the destruction of Israel. To see Israel “wiped off the map,” would be a most welcome event to her enemies. One must wonder, is it really just about land? Israel is such a small piece of land after all. Could there be another motive? I believe the answer is yes. When looked at in Biblical terms, it becomes quite easy to see that land is not the sole reason for conflict.

Judaism 101
When studying Judaism, one will quickly find out that the Jews are God’s chosen people. In the Bible, God made a covenant with Abraham. God told Abraham that He would make him the father of a great nation, if he kept his part of the covenant (Hopfe & Woodward, 2009, pg. 255). Abraham’s son, Isaac, and grandson, Jacob would inherit this covenant along with Jacob’s 12 sons. Together, these men are known as the patriarchs of the Jewish people.

Abraham and his people worshipped one God, which was quite uncommon at that time. Worship consisted of animal sacrifice, circumcision, keeping the Sabbath. When the Hebrews found themselves in bondage in Egypt, there religious practices were not exactly welcomed. It would not be until Moses was called by God to lead His people out of Egypt that we begin to see Judaism become a structured religion. After the famous Red Sea crossing, Moses was led up to Mt. Sinai where he received the Ten Commandments from God. These commandments are as follows (Hopfe & Woodward, 2009, pg. 286).

1. You shall have no other gods before Me.
2. You shall not make for yourself a graven image.
3. You shall not take the name of the Lord your God in vain.
4. Observe the Sabbath day, to keep it holy.
5. Honor your father and your mother.
6. You shall not kill.
7. You shall not commit adultery.
8. You shall not steal.
9. You shall not bear false witness.
10. You shall not covet.

Judaism, like Islam, is a strictly monotheistic religion. Indeed, these two religions worship the same God. Why then is there such hostility? First, Jews are the descendants of Abraham’s son, Isaac and Arab’s are the descendants of Abraham’s son, Ishmael. Isaac was the son of promise; Ishmael was the son of a slave woman born to Abraham when he and his wife doubted God, and told Abraham to have sexual relations with her servant, Hagar. This undoubtedly, is the beginning of tensions. For if this union had never taken place, there would be no Arab nation today!

The two religions, Judaism and Islam, disagree on who the son of promise was. The Muslims claim it was Ishmael, and the Jews of course, claim it was Isaac. But this is not the only reason for hostility. Today’s tension mainly stem from the United Nations giving some of the land in Israel to the Jews following WWII. This land was inhabited by Arabs, who were not at all pleased with this action. It is unclear if there will ever be peace in the Middle East; although I tend to believe not.

The reason I feel that learning about Judaism is beneficial to understanding that Middle East conflict is because of the simple fact that God chose Israel for His people. Every religion has their own foundation and beliefs about their god and what role they play in relation to that god. For Israel, their role is to inhabit the land promised to them by their God. That is the fundamental belief of the Jews. Understanding that would help in realizing why there are such contentions in the Middle East.

References
Alder, P.J., & Pouwels, R.L. (2008) World Civilizations Volume I: to 1700 (5th Edition). Boston: MA Wadsworth
Isseroff, A. (2009). Israel and Palestine: a brief history – part I. MideastWeb. Retreived December 13, 2009, from http://www.mideastweb.org/briefhistory.htm#The%20Jewish%20Kingdoms

In the Name of Allah, Yahweh and Brahma: Religious Conflicts and Why They Happen

The word religion comes from the Latin word religio, which “refers to the fear and awe one feels in the presence of a spirit or god” (Hopfe & Woodward, 2009, pg. 3). Religion can also be described as a set of beliefs and a code of morals that a person follows; a lifestyle. Among all the religions of the world, there are some that worship a god, many gods, no gods, or nature. In this paper, we will focus on three religions: Christianity, Islam, and Hinduism. These three religions are the largest in the world and have been the source of great strife.

Throughout history, there have been holy wars, invasions, forced conversions, genocide, and other forms of violence that have shaped the world we live in today. In a large sense, we are still seeing and feeling the effects of those that have gone before us. A person cannot read a newspaper or watch television without there being some reference to religiously inspired conflict. In order to fully understand why there is such hostility between various religious groups, one must first understand what their beliefs are and the history behind those beliefs.
Beliefs and Their Origins
Hinduism

Hinduism is perhaps the oldest religion of the world. When the Aryan people migrated to India, they brought with them their religious beliefs. Over time, these beliefs would merge with native Indian beliefs; thus, Hinduism was born. The Aryan’s contribution to Hinduism begins with the Vedas which is a collection of songs to the Aryan gods. The Vedas also included philosophy, instructions on worship and rituals, and poetry. The Vedas serve as the foundation for Hinduism, but in later times, it would not be the focus. Other writings that are important in Hinduism are the Upanishads (a part of the Vedas), the Law of Manu, and the Bhagavad Gita.
The beliefs of the Hindus are complex. There are literally thousands of gods within this religion, with the emphasis being on Brahman, the ultimate reality that has two other personifications: Shiva and Vishnu. While Brahman is impersonal and has little to do with humans, Shiva, the destroyer, and Vishnu, the preserver, take interest in the affairs of man. It is these two latter gods that many attach themselves to. Hindus adhere to the Law of Manu, which instructs them on how to live. Much like the Ten Commandments are to the Jews and Christians, so the Law of Manu is to Hindus. Some key rules are: control of senses, purity, non-irritability, and pleasantness. It goes without saying that Hinduism is polytheist.
Islam

Before Islam, it is uncertain what religion was followed in Arabia. The people did believe in Allah (God), but also worshipped numerous other gods (Hopfe & Woodward, 2009, pg. 347). Islam is a monotheist religion based on the teachings of Muhammad. Muhammad claims he was visited by the angel Gabriel after a time of meditation in the hills. He would experience these visitations throughout the rest of his life and teach them to his followers. Muhammad believed that there was but one God; the same God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.

People were reluctant to this “revelation” that Muhammad received from God, but over time, his following began to grow. His teachings were recorded and make up the Qur’an. Among the strict monotheist teachings of Islam are the Five Pillars. These pillars are daily obligations that each good Muslim must carry out and include: repetition of the creed, daily prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and pilgrimage. No other religion has such a strong emphasis on monotheism besides that of Judaism. Later, we will see why this one aspect plays a part in the conflict between Muslims and Christians, and Muslims and Hindus.

Christianity
Christianity began as a sect of Judaism. After the crucifixion, burial, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, his followers set out to fulfill the Great Commission. Jesus had told his disciples that they were to spread the Good News of salvation to every creature on Earth. Christianity holds to the beliefs of the Ten Commandments, but is no longer under the Old Testament laws. Jesus taught that he had come to fulfill the law (Matthew 5:17, NIV). This has been the topic of much debate.

Simply put, Christians are to obey the basic tenets of the faith, but are not bound to dietary laws and other regulations that were given to Moses. Christianity has become the largest religion in the world. One out of three people will claim to have some affiliation with Christian doctrine. This doctrine has evolved and been personalized by many different groups over the centuries. Today there are literally thousands of denominations or sub denominations within Christianity.

According to the Campus Crusade for Christ (2009), the basic tenets of faith for mainstream Christianity are:

1. There is one true God, eternally existing in three persons — Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
2. Jesus Christ is God, the living Word, who became flesh through His miraculous conception by the Holy Spirit and His virgin birth.
3. He lived a sinless life and voluntarily atoned for the sins of men by dying on the cross as their substitute, thus satisfying divine justice and accomplishing salvation for all who trust in Him alone.
4. He rose from the dead in the same body, though glorified, in which He lived and died.
5. He ascended bodily into heaven and sat down at the right hand of God the Father, where He, the only mediator between God and man, continually makes intercession for His own.
6. Man was originally created in the image of God. He sinned by disobeying God; thus, he was alienated from his Creator. That historic fall brought all mankind under divine condemnation.
7. Man’s nature is corrupted, and he is thus totally unable to please God. Every man is in need of regeneration and renewal by the Holy Spirit.
8. The salvation of man is wholly a work of God’s free grace and is not the work, in whole or in part, of human works or goodness or religious ceremony. God imputes His righteousness to those who put their faith in Christ alone for their salvation, and thereby justified them in His sight.
9. It is the privilege of all who are born again of the Spirit to be assured of their salvation from the very moment in which they trust Christ as their Savior. This assurance is not based upon any kind of human merit, but is produced by the witness of the Holy Spirit, who confirms in the believer the testimony of God in His written word.
10. The Holy Spirit has come into the world to reveal and glorify Christ and to apply the saving work of Christ to men. He convicts and draws sinners to Christ, imparts new life to them, continually indwells them from the moment of spiritual birth and seals them until the day of redemption. His fullness, power and control are appropriated in the believer’s life by faith.
11. Every believer is called to live so in the power of the indwelling Spirit that he will not fulfill the lust of the flesh but will bear fruit to the glory of God.
12. Jesus Christ is the Head of the Church, His Body, which is composed of all men, living and dead, who have been joined to Him through saving faith.
13. God admonishes His people to assemble together regularly for worship, for participation in ordinances, for edification through the Scriptures and for mutual encouragement.
14. At physical death the believer enters immediately into eternal, conscious fellowship with the Lord and awaits the resurrection of his body to everlasting glory and blessing.
15. At physical death the unbeliever enters immediately into eternal, conscious separation from the Lord and awaits the resurrection of his body to everlasting judgment and condemnation.
16. Jesus Christ will come again to the earth — personally, visibly and bodily — to consummate history and the eternal plan of God.
17. The Lord Jesus Christ commanded all believers to proclaim the Gospel throughout the world and to disciple men of every nation. The fulfillment of that Great Commission requires that all worldly and personal ambitions be subordinated to a total commitment to “Him who loved us and gave Himself for us.”

The Great Divide
So what caused the division between Christians and Muslims? To find the answer, we must go back many centuries to explore the relationships between these religions in their early stages. Islamic civilizations were the first to be universal, as it was comprised of various races and cultures, and spread to three continents (Lewis, 1995, pg. 10). Many lands that were once Christian were conquered by Islam. This conquering has a name: jihad. Jihad, or holy war, has but one purpose and it “is not directly to spread the Islamic faith but to extend sovereign Muslim power (faith, of course, often follows the flag). Jihad is thus unabashedly offensive in nature, with the eventual goal of achieving Muslim dominion over the entire globe” (Pipes, 2002).

We are beginning to understand why there is division among Muslims and Christians. Muhammad believed that he was the last of God’s prophets and the finalizer of God’s message (Adler & Pouwels, 2008, pg. 184-185). Muslims are strict monotheist, in that they believe that God is one, indivisible. It is not surprising then that they disagree that Jesus was no more than a prophet. How can God come in the flesh and become a mortal man if God is indivisible? The Trinity has also been the source of debate. Christians believe in God, the Father, God, the Son, and God, the Holy Spirit. To a Muslim, this is polytheism.

Finally, Muslims believe they are the true people of the Old Testament. “Islam regards itself, not as a subsequent faith to Judaism and Christianity, but as the primordial religion, the faith from which Judaism and Christianity are subsequent developments” (Durie, n.d.). Thus, Muslims believe that they are God’s representatives on the Earth, not Christians, or Jews.

The Crusades
The crusades were the Christian answer to Muslim occupation of the Holy Land. Recapturing the Holy Land was not the only reason for the crusades. The first crusade was led by Pope Urban II in an attempt to repair the relationship between Roman and Orthodox Christianity after the Schism of 1054. The following are the dates of the crusades and the leadership under which they were carried out (The Christian Crusades, n.d.)

1. 1095-1099: called by Pope Urban II and led by Peter the Hermit, Walter the Penniless, Godfrey of Bouillon, Baldwin and Eustace of Flanders, and others.
2. 1147-49: headed by King Louis VII who was enlisted by Bernard of Clairvaux, was a disastrous failure, including the loss of one of the four Latin Kingdoms, the Duchy of Edessa.
3. 1188-92: proclaimed by Pope Gregory VIII in the wake of the catastrophe of the second crusade, which conducted by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, King Philip Augustus of France and King Richard “Coeur-de-Lion” of England.
4. During which Constantinople was sacked, 1202-1204.
5. Which included the conquest of Damietta, 1217-1221.
6. In which Frederick II took part (1228-29); also Thibaud de Champagne and Richard of Cornwall (1239)
7. Led by St. Louis (Louis IX of France), 1248-50.

While the motives behind the crusades were noble, the actions of the warriors were not. Many of the knights that fought became enamored by power. They would do just about anything to conquer. This was just another reason for Christianity and Islam to be divided, and to this day, we can still see the hostilities and contempt that is held for one another.

Despite the bloodshed and barbaric behaviors during the crusades, there were positive aspects. Two men in particular are viewed as heroes among both Muslim and Christians: Saladin and St. Frances of Assisi. Saladin, a Muslim leader, regained Jerusalem at one point without bloodshed. St. Frances of Assisi risked his life by imploring the Sultan of Egypt to help bring peace (The Crusades, n.d.)

It should be noted that the difference between the Muslim and Christian ways of converting unbelievers is also a source of tension. Muslims conquer. Throughout history, they have invaded lands, and for the most part, forced the natives to either convert or face death. Christians have another approach. Christians would fulfill the Great Commission by spreading the gospel. It is a personal decision for someone to either embrace the message of Jesus Christ or reject it. Two very different methods of proselytizing.

The Muslim-Hindu Conflict
The conflict between Muslim and Hindus began shortly after the birth of Islam in 700 C.E. The Muslims retaliated for the Hindu involvement in Persian affairs. It was not until the 1192 C.E. that Muslims found great success in India when they captured the city of Delhi, which they renamed the Delhi Sultanate (Adler & Pouwels, 2008, pg. 206). This sultanate would last for three centuries and formed the relations between Hindus and Muslims.

The intolerance for the pagan beliefs of the Hindus was cause for much violence. Raids were launched and thousands of lives lost. In just one raid, roughly 50,000 Brahmin were massacred. Ultimately, the Muslims would gain control of a large portion of the Indian subcontinent. Muslims tried to convert their Hindu subjects, but to no avail. The religious differences between Muslim and Hindu were a constant source of hostility. One person, Kabir (1440-1518 C.E.) tried to bring to the two together. He was born a Muslim, but taught that Hindus and Muslims could worship side by side, and was considered a holy man by Muslims and Hindus.

One of Kabir’s contemporaries, Nanak (1469-1538 C.E.), founded a new religion based on Kabir’s notions. Nanak “challenged the perceived fanaticism and intolerance of the Muslims of his time, also criticizing the Hindus for their seemingly meaningless ritual and caste prejudice” (Caner & Caner, 2002, pg.170). This religion is called Sikhism, and rejects all rituals and routine practices. By mediating, following the gurus teachings, and performing acts of charity, a person can merge with Allah. When Akbar the Great came to power in about 1530 C.E., he reorganized the government and for the first time, put into action a policy of religious tolerance (Adler & Pouwels, 2008, pg. 329). He was a practicing Muslim, but allowed others to worship freely, including Christians.

Today the conflict in India between Muslims and Hindus remain. The focal point this time: Kashmir. While the Hindu ruler was debating whether to join Pakistan or India, a Muslims protested violently. In the wake of this event, he chose India. This decision led to a war between Pakistan and India in the city of Kashmir (Nosotro, n.d.). To this day, there is unrest in Kashmir. It is uncertain if there will ever be peace among Christians, Muslims, and Hindus. History tells us that it is improbable.

References
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